Comparison of Urban Sociological Theories Essay Example for Free

Comparison of Urban Sociological Theories Essay Comparison of Urban Sociological Theories In order for an urban sociologist to discover â€Å"How urban societies work,† theories of â€Å"urban ecology† or â€Å"political economy† are used as a guide in their research. Urban ecology refers to the importance of social structure and social organization as shaping social life in the city. Urban ecologist concerns for social order, social cohesion, community ties and social differentiation offer key insight to how societies work (Kleniewski, 2001). Alternatively political economy stresses the use of power, domination and resources in the shaping of cities (Kleniewski, 2001). Urban sociologists’ theoretical approach to research questions is based on fundamental assumptions that they find most useful for understanding the operation of the social world. Therefore researchers using these different theories will ask different questions, examine different data and interpret their findings in different ways (Kleniewski, 2001). In the early years of 1910-1920, a time of social change and urban growth, urban sociologists in the United States, the Chicago School, were directly confronted by the diversity, liveliness and apparent fragmentation of urban life. The urban sociologists of the Chicago School drew a concern for order, cohesion and social relationships (Kleniewski, 2001). The founder of the Chicago School of urban sociology was Robert E. Park. He believed that cities are like living organisms, composed of interconnected parts and that each part relates to the structure of the city as a whole and to the other parts (Kleniewski, 2001). Park called his approach to urban life â€Å"human ecology,† a term used interchangeably with â€Å"urban ecology. Human ecology studies the â€Å"social norms† which are rooted in the relationship between human populations and the environment or territories they inhabit, stressing the orderly interaction of interdependent parts of social life in urban areas (Kleniewski, 2001). Human ecologist, Louis Wirth shared with the theoretical antecedents of urban ecology, Tonnies, Durkheim and Simmel, the notion that social interactions in cities were different from social interactions in rura l areas or small communities. He believed that social interactions in modern industrial cities were impersonal and fragmented. He believed that factors such as size, density, and heterogeneity were responsible for social relations found in cities (Kleniewski, 2001). This theory of human ecology was used to study human behavior such as, lives of gang members, homeless people and immigrants and to study changing land uses over time in order to show how the different populations of the city adapt to and compete for territories (Kleniewski, 2001. In comparison to urban ecology, political economy is concerned with how urban societies work. Although, political economist developed different understandings and interpretations of how urban societies actually work. In the 1970’s the city had many social problems which included welfare, unemployment and tax inflations. Theorist of political economy, Marx, Engels and Weber viewed the city as a site of struggle due to unequal distribution of resources (Kleniewski, 2001). Therefore in contrast to the urban ecology theory of humans being immediately dependent on their environment, the theory of political economy stresses that the city relies not only on its environment but its social arrangement, economic and political functions. Also in contrast to urban ecology, residential patterns are not only influenced by humans just adapting to their natural environment but by economic inequalities. This leads to competition. In contrast to urban ecology, competition not just among groups for space but among groups for control of economic resources. Political economists theorize that â€Å"social norms,† in contrast to urban ecology are not only influenced by size and density of the population but also influenced by the values of dominant groups (Kleniewski, 2001). These struggles or social forces help shape urban patterns and urban social life. Therefore, class, social status, political power, racial and ethnic conflicts also play a major role in shaping the city (Kleniewski, 2001). The Political Economy Perspective

Seeking Truth in A Dolls House :: A Dolls House Essays

Seeking Truth in A Doll's House. The characters, in Henrik Ibsen's A Doll's House, are hiding from each other and seeking the truth about each other and about life. The game of hide and seek that Nora plays with her children, she also plays with her husband. She hides her actions and her true personality from him. He also hides his life from her. Thinking that she would never even understand, he keeps all the business of their relationship secret from her. Although Nora hides from her husband, she also plays the role of seeker. Nora wants to seek out the truth of her life. Much of the play is a game of hide and seek. Excellent. Nora plays a game of "hide and seek"(Ibsen 506)* with her children. The simple game can be seen also as a symbol of real life in the play. Nora is playing hide and seek with the adults in her life. Nora is trying to keep something away from public knowledge and especially away from her husband. She hides the fact that she borrowed money to save his health. She was afraid that if Torvald knew that she had taken initiative to borrow money to help him that it would be "painful and humiliating"(Ibsen 501) for him. She knows that Torvald needs to feel in control of everything. So she hides her actions from him. Nora hides the fact that she has done something illegal from Torvald. She is given the opportunity to tell Torvald and maybe get his support or advise on the situation, and she lies to him to hide the truth. She claims that the reason that she does not want Torvald to fire Krogstad is that "this fellow writes in the most scurrilous newspapers...he can do [Torvald] an unspeakable amount of harm"(Ibsen 519). Nora hides the truth and replaces it with lies. Torvald does not know that if he fires Krogstad that the consequences will affect his whole family. Nora could have told him, but instead she decided to hide the truth from her husband. She also hides her own strength. She plays the part that she has come accustomed to, being the doll. The first time in the play that Torvald refers to Nora, he calls her a "little lark"(Ibsen 493). Throughout the play, he refers to her as a cute little animal, never with any word that might imply a situation of his peer.

Iron Deficient Anemia

Iron-Deficient Anemia Millions of Americans today often admit to being regularly fatigued, attributing it to busy schedules and not enough sleep. These factors certainly can cause fatigue, but, fatigue tends to be a more common underlying symptom of a health condition called iron-deficient anemia. In the article, Understanding Anemia, the Basics, WebMD. com describes iron-deficient anemia as a condition that â€Å"occurs because of a lack of the mineral iron in the body. † It further states that â€Å"without adequate iron, the body cannot produce enough hemoglobin for the red blood cells. Typical indications of anemia include, fatigue, weakness, irritability, headache, pale skin color, and shortness of breath. A more moderate case of anemia may be comprised of the above symptoms and others, such as, numb hands and feet, cold hands and feet, brittle nails, and trouble concentrating. According to the NAAC, the National Anemia Action Council, â€Å"the less common, yet still n oted, experiences with anemia consist of an irregular heartbeat, a desire to eat peculiar things, sexual dysfunction, and chest pains. † In order to obtain a clear diagnosis of iron-deficient anemia, there are a few steps that need to be taken. Initially, a physical examination by a licensed medical doctor should be performed. This will allow the doctor to determine what symptoms and complications are prevalent. To further conclude a positive result for anemia, the doctor will order blood tests, namely a CBC, (complete blood count), a fecal occult test, and a test to check the vitamin and mineral levels in the blood. Specifically checking for iron, ferritin, and vitamin b12 is essential in determining anemia by blood. Once a positive result of anemia is verified, the doctor can then discuss treatments. Google Health, at google. com states that in milder cases of anemia, the doctor will recommend the patient to â€Å"take iron supplements by mouth† and â€Å"eat iron-rich foods such as egg yolks, fish, legumes, meats, raisins, and whole grain breads. † The more severe exmaples of anemia might require iron by injection, iron given intravenously, or, as a last resort, a blood transfusion may be needed. Understanding the indications of anemia and the preventative measures one can take, may be helpful to many people who can’t comprehend why they are so tired all the time. Anemia is one of the most common and most undiagnosed conditions in America today. Education can make the difference in one who helps themselves, and one who continues to suffer from anemia. Works Cited â€Å"Iron Deficiency Anemia† Google Health https://www. google. com/health/ref/Iron+deficiency+anemia â€Å"Iron Deficiency Anemia† NAAC- National Anemia Action Council January 14, 2009 http://www. anemia. org â€Å"Understanding Anemia, the Basics† WebMD December 14, 2008 http://www. webmd. com/a-to-z-guides/understanding-anemia-basics

Comparism of an everyday text with a literary text Essay

Choose one every day and one literary text. Using at least two analytical techniques from E301, analyze and compare your two texts in terms of their creativity and literariness, drawing on material from both parts of the module. In this paper I will analyze and compare a literary text and an everyday text, in terms of their creativity and literariness. I chose Philip Larkin’s (1964) poem, ‘Self’s the man’ (see Appendix, Text 1), as the literary text for analysis because it is not only smooth and pleasing to the eye and mind that it seems effortless to read and contain within one’s self but also because it arouses so many emotions which makes it ideal for analysis. In ‘Self’s the man’ Larkin (1964), is being cynical towards relationships and through the satirization of marriage; he contrasts himself with a mythical other, Arnold, with a view of talking about who is more selfish, claiming that married people are as selfish as single ones, that is, for their own comfort as well as fear that they will be left alone for the rest of their lives, people jump into marriage. The everyday text that I have chosen to analyze and compare with the poem, is an advertisement by DEBEERS (see Appendix, Text 2), targeting men, persuading them to buy a diamond ring for their lady, since diamonds, just like marriage, are an investment. Diamonds are a symbol of eternal love and devotion and men are aware of this symbolism, hence, DE BEERS exploits that in the advertisement by ingraining in the minds of men that if they want to stop ‘a woman getting away’ (Larkin, 1964), they should make their ‘two months’ salary last forever’ (DE BEERS, 2004). Although at first glance the two texts seem completely different, they are seemingly connected by the same theme of ‘relationships’, however, from two different contrasting contexts, with Text 1, being a poem by Philip Larkin (1964), and Text 2, being an advertisement by DE BEERS (2004). In order to evaluate the creativity and literariness of a text, a thorough analysis of the language the writer has used is of supreme importance. However, before analyzing the texts, it is necessary to have a broad interpretation of creativity and literariness. According to Sternberg (1999:3), ‘Creativity is the ability to produce work that i s both novel (i.e. Original, unexpected) and appropriate (i.e. Adaptive concerning task constraints). Furthermore, Swann (2006: 7) asserts that ‘creativity is not restricted to literary texts but is a common aspect of our interactions with others’, which links closely to Papen’s and Tusting’s (2006:315) claim  that ‘all meaning making processes have a creative element’. Hence, it can be said that creativity can be found in all literacy practices, in the way that texts are constructed, read and interpreted. Creativity has textual, socio-cultural and cognitive aspects (Carter, 2004) and in this paper both chosen texts will be analyzed in terms of all three. Literariness, on the other hand, is defined by the Russian Formalists as a sum of special linguistic and formal ‘properties that could be located in literary texts’ (Maybin & Pearce, 2006:6). The Formalists elucidate the observable ‘devices’ by which literary texts, especially poems, foreground their own language, in rhyme, and other patterns of sound and repetition . Hence, literariness is to be perceived in terms of defamiliarization, as a series of deviations from ‘ordinary’ language, ‘in which our routine ways of seeing and thinking are disrupted; our perceptions freshened; and our awareness of the world heightened’ (Shklovsky, in Hawks, 1997:62). Cook (1994) asserts that literariness is based on the notion of schema disruption where the reader’s views and perspectives are challenged in some way. He proposes that literariness results when a text and linguistic deviation cause schema disruption, refreshment or even change, however, whether a text generates schema refreshment ultimately depends on the reader’s desire for it to happen. Therefore, who the reader is, how he approaches and perceives the text with distinct background knowledge and expectations, ultimately determines the literary value of a text. In my analysis, I will first apply Jakobson’s (1960) methodology, stylistics approach and Carter’s (1997) criteria of literariness to the two texts and then contrast them with illustrations in terms of interpretative schemata. My intention in doing so is to highlight some of the strengths and weaknesses of these approaches and also modes in which they interact to better comprehend the nature of cre ativity and literariness. On the graphological level, in Text 1, the noticeable attributes are the traditional lineation, stanza divisions of poetry, and the presence of standard punctuation. The poem has 8 stanzas in all and each stanza consists of 4 lines. This creates a set rhythmic pattern, particularly in conjunction with the rhyme scheme. Text 2, on the other hand, on a graphic level, uses full capitalization in order to emphasize every letter in the ad and make it  look trim and tidy. The headline uses larger, capital and bold letters to draw readers’ attention and make them curious about what the advertisement mainly has to say, leading them to continue on reading unconsciously by arousing their curiosity and desire to know more about the product and subsequently persuading them to buy it. Moreover, Text 2, illustrates graphological deviation, by using solid background colors, and a brilliant diamond ring to focus all the reader’s attention to. On the phonic level, Text 1 has little ir regularity. The rhyme scheme of the poem is AABB, CCDD, where lines 1 & 2 and 3 & 4, rhyme in every verse with an exception of half-rhyme in the 3rd (supper/paper) and 4th (houses/trousers; mother/summer) stanzas. The use of rhyme creates an ‘end stop’, whereby the reader pauses slightly, emphasizing the words that rhyme. In Jakobson’s methodology (1960), when phonemes rhyme in a text and/or alliteration is present together with other sound effects of verse, ‘it is at once both a deviation from the code and an imposition of order upon it’ (Cook, 1994:396). Presuming that rhyming of phonemes is unique, literary, and an attribute of text, it can be said that, Text 1, is both creative and literary. In Text 2, on the other hand, the nine-word headline also contains linguistic exploitation, in a way that highlights and depicts the message which makes it an interesting Carpe diem poem urging the reader to seize the day by making his two months’ salary last forev er. Although, Text 2 is an advertisement and attention of the reader is traditionally supposed to be on the meaning rather than the sound, it is interesting to see how the headline, ‘HOW CAN YOU MAKE TWO MONTHS’ SALARY LAST FOREVER?’ contains phonological parallelism with an inline-rhyme (You/Two: both words come from a paradigm of one syllable words containing the sound /uË /) which as mentioned above makes it, both, creative and literary. The lexis in Text 1 is ‘ordinary’ rather than ‘poetic’. Larkin’s (1964) deviation from Standard English by using colloquial lexis: ‘perk’, ‘nippers’, ‘kiddies’ clobber’; interests the reader and familiarizes them with the situation, which is effective in that it is easy to read if one can relate to the poet. Moreover, the constant use of the conjunction ‘and’, in the 2nd, 3rd and 7th stanzas highlights the bare, repetitive and boring lifestyle of Arnold which is reduced to mundane tasks. Text 2, on the other hand, exploits lexical ambiguity at the semantic level. Thus, the slogan â€Å"A Diamond Is Forever,†Ã‚  means both that ‘a diamond is a never-ending sign of love’ (that is, the diamond is not merely seen as a rock but rather as a sign of eternal love, hence, the diamond, in Text 2, is made to produce love and comes to mean ‘love’) and that ‘a diamond would always hold its value’. Additionally, affirmative and commendatory words and phrases (‘perfect’, ‘she’ll cherish’, ‘she’ll love’, ‘surprise her’, ‘diamond experts since 1888’) are widely used in, Text 2, to impress the potential customer of the quality of the diamond ring, to form positive image in their minds, win their trust and arouse their desire to buy it. Moreover, in Text 2, the use of second person addressee â€Å"you† tends to shorten the distance between the reader and the advertiser, making the advertisement more like a face-to-face conversation where the advertiser speaks to the readers in a tender tone, making sincere promises and honest recommendations. In so doing, the advertisement moves the reader to action since the reader feels he is being thought of and plays an important role for the manufacturer. Hence, it can be said that, Text 2, has an obvious conative function, since it is supposed to address and influence the reader to buy a product, unlike, Text 1, where the poetic function dominates, making it self-referential (Thornborrow, 2006). Turning to the grammatical characteristics of the texts, Text 1, just like its lexis, seems pointedly ‘unpoetic’. Apart from Short’s (1996) idea of cohesion which can be identified in the poem since it contains logical and clear links between sentences through the use of words such as ‘and’ (‘And when he finishes supper’), ‘but’ (‘But wait not too fast’) and in form of personal reference, that is, through the use of personal pronouns where Arnold is named at the beginning to introduce him as a topic and then onwards the pronouns ‘he’ and ‘his’ are employed anaphorically for subsequent reference , there are only a few glimpses of patterning or ‘poetic’ syntax. One grammatical deviance in Text 1 is found in line 18 (‘Makes me feel a swine’), where the writer’s omission of the word ‘like’ draws particular attention to itself by deviating from what is expected. Imagery, a stylistic device, is used in Text 1, in the 3rd and 4th stanzas, where the poet invites the readers to imagine Arnold wheeling the ‘nippers’†¦round the  houses’(L.13) as well as painting the hall ‘in his old trousers’ (L.14) obviously at the command of his wife. Furthermore, the stylistic device, diction, which is the choice of distinct words used in a text to not only communicate meaning but also emotions, is being cleverly used in Text 1. The diction of ‘Self’s the man’ is accurate, vivid, expressive and chosen wisely by the poet. For instance, in the following sentence, ‘She takes as her perk’ (L.6), the ‘speediness’ and ‘brusqueness’ of the verb ‘takes’ insinuates a sense of forced snatching possibly even before Arnold has counted his money. The noun ‘perk’ promotes a negative view of women, suggesting that Arnold’s wife is a gold digger who expects to be paid for being there. Moreover, Larkin’s use of the colloquial idiom, ‘having a read at†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ instead of ‘read’, insinuates Arnold’s chronic fatigue, robbing him of the power of serious concentration. The phrase ‘Put a screw in this wall’ (L11) highlights how Arnold’s wife has the upper hand in the relationship, that she nags and controls him and ‘He has no time at all’ (L12), for he has given his life to marriage. Through his diction, one can perceive the poet’s sarcastic and cynical tone in Text 1, portraying Arnold as being trapped, unhappy and unfulfilled since he is enslaved, dominated and directed by his wife and children. The last stanza is an indecisive finishing statement that shows that the poet has reached the conclusion that he has a superior strategy in playing the game of life, however, by saying ‘Or – I suppose I can’ in Line 32, he lets the readers interpret and decide for themselves who i s more selfish. On the other hand, the grammatical style marker of significance in, Text 2, is the extensive use of present tense which demonstrates not only the positive features of the diamond ring, satisfying the consumer’s desire to know the present state of the product he wants but also makes the advertisement easier to comprehend without transferring to other tenses. But there is another aspect of the simple present in, Text 2, and that is its implication of universality and timelessness. Moreover, the use of interrogative sentences, in Text 2, such as, ‘How often will you give her something she’ll cherish for the rest of her life?’ and ‘How can you make two months’ salary last forever?’ arouses the reader’s attention since they are, both, captivating and thought provoking. Carter’s (1997) criteria of literariness, assists in confirming the general  opinion that both texts have a relatively high degree of literariness. The first criterion of Carter (1997) which is evident in, Text 1, is medium dependence. ‘Self’s the man’ creates a world of internal reference where the reader’s attention is ultimately ‘drawn into the text itself’ (Maybin & Pearce, 2006:16). Perceptibly, a lack of direct referential communication exists with the reader’s concerns, which results in an ‘enclosing effect’ proposed by Widdowson (1975) as being an attribute of literature. Carter (1997) asserts that such a text, which exclusively depends on itself, throws the reader’s expectations and emotions into turmoil, making them ‘feel insecure thus adding intensity to the meaning of the text’ (Carter, 1997:67). However, he elucidates that ‘no text can be so entirely autonomous that it refers only to itself nor so rich that a reader’s own experience†¦cannot extend the world it creates’ (Carter, 1997:82) which relates to Widdowson’s (1975:36) theory that ‘literary interpretation†¦is not concerned with what the writer meant by the text, but what the text means, or might mean, to the reader’. On the other hand, Text 2, points towards an external, verifiable reality which if required, could be reordered or reformed without altering the meaning. Moreover, Text 2, communicates with the reader in such a way that he/she is bound by cooperative conditions of conventional communication. It also relies on another medium, the employment of an image, to assist in reinforcing the promotional and persuasive effect, which when combined, shows aspects of literary creativity. The next criterion proposed by Carter (1997), genre mixing, is a type of deviation which demonstrates how all language can be employed to generate a literary effect by this process. Text 1 shows examples of deviation at the level of words and meaning as it includes colloquial words and phrases which stand out from the surrounding text (perk’, ‘nippers’, ‘kiddies’ clobber’, ‘having a read at’) while Text 2, exploits the language typically associated with advertising which could be subtly redeployed for literary purposes. Text 2, also employs graphological deviation, through the use of different layout, size and typeface. Polysemy, the use of words or phrases that have more than one meaning, is another criterion of Carter’s (1997) which can be seen in the following sentence in Text 2: ‘A Diamond is Forever’. These words as mentioned earlier carry the meaning that ‘a diamond  is a symbol of eternal loveâ₠¬â„¢ and that ‘a diamond would always remain valuable’. Moreover, the headline in Text 2, ‘How can you make two months’ salary last forever?’ is also polysemous, telling men that ‘they should invest their two months’ salary in buying a diamond ring for their lady which will make their love last forever’ and that ‘since diamonds are rare, a symbol of success and the most valuable possession, its value will only increase with time’, hence they are an ideal investment for their money. Carter’s (1997) criterion of text patterning expatiates on Jakobson’s (1960) concept of parallelism, nevertheless, on a much broader textual scale. Texts get their meaning from their context and what meaning the writer desires to establish depends to a larger extent on the reader. By looking at the structure of Text 1 and the way it is presented, one can say that it was written for no distinct purpose other than to entertain, whereas, Text 1 has a definite pragmatic function, for it is written f or a particular purpose which is to inform and persuade the reader to buy a diamond ring. So far, I have followed Jakobson (1960), Carter (1997) and the stylistics point of view, to analyze the formal features of the texts. However, in order for a text to serve as a coherent communicative act, certain schemata of the reader must be activated to make sense of what they read by applying the text to significant and authentic experiences. Text 1, activates the reader’s ‘married life’, ‘single life’ and ‘selfishness VS selflessness’ schema and as a result, judgments are made which go beyond the text. In Text 1, I interpret the relevant reader (depending on the reader) schemata to be as follows: Script: selfishness VS unselfishness of married and single people Script: marriage is an act of selflessness Script: married life has the bliss of being a husband and father Script: single people are inferior to married people Script: stay single since marriage is a form of entrapment Script: married people are as selfish as singles In Text 2, I interpret the relevant reader schemata (depending on the reader) as follows: Script: buy a diamond ring Plan: give a diamond ring Plan: show love and devotion Plan: impress the woman Goal: marry the woman Or Script: buy a diamond ring Goal: perfect investment for money since a diamond’s worth will increase with time No obvious mention of these schemata was made by the writers of the texts and I have only come to these cognitive conclusions with my own cultural background influencing my intuition. It can be said that, Text 1, ultimately results in schema reinforcement since it corroborates the stereotypical presumptions about people and the world. Text 2, also results in schema reinforcement since the advertisers assume that readers share and recognize their plans and are persuadable to the recommendation and will purchase a diamond ring. The analyses manifest how Jakobson’s and Carter’s methodology operates only at the linguistic level and not at the schematic and discoursal level. The literariness of both texts cannot be represented in simple Stylistics, Carter’s or Jakobson’s approach. Only with reference to the reader’s distinct schemata, can one argue for their literar iness or lack of it. In conclusion, the analyses demonstrate the weaknesses of Stylistics, Jakobson’s and Carter’s inherency approach in isolation, highlighting the importance of the reader’s unique interpretative schemata. However, one should not cast aside Jakobson’s, Stylistics and inherency approach but rather supplement them with the pivotal role of the reader. The significance of a reader to determine the literariness of a text was neglected by Jakobson, although, interestingly, his philosophy strongly insinuates the presence of the reader. In order for a text to have a poetic function, it has to have an effect on the person reading the text, which is, the reader. Stylistics and Carter’s inherency focus, on the other hand, are only beneficial in showing that ‘there are no sharp cut-offs between literary and non-literary texts and that prototypical literary texts, even if not poems, contain poetic elements’ (Thornborrow, 2006:65). Hence, Text 1, with its few glimpses of linguistic patterning and deviation, may still be regarded as literary by many readers, whereas, Text 2, with its density of patterning and deviation will hardly be regarded as being literary only because it is classified as an advertisement. This, however, depends upon individual  readers since point of views and approaches present in the texts will arouse particular judgments in particular readers. These judgments will differ according to the schemata of the reader, and the extent to which their valued expectations and emotions are thrown into turmoil. Moreover, it can be said that both texts are wide open to recategorization as readers change for different readers will categorize a text differently. REFERENCES Carter, R (1997) in Goodman, S & O’Halloran, K. (2006) The art of English: Literary creativity, Open University, Milton Keynes, pp. 60-89 Carter, R (2004) Language and Creativity: The Art of Common Talk, London, Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group, pp. 1-226. Cook, D. (1994) in in Goodman, S & O’Halloran, K. (2006) The art of English: Literary creativity, Open University, Milton Keynes, pp. 37-43, 396-413 DeBeers, (2004) ‘How Can You Make Two Months Salary Last Forever’, [online], http://lessisabore.com/main_files/writing/04_diamond.html (Accessed on 2 April 2012) Grice, P. (1975) in Goodman, S & O’Halloran, K. (2006) The art of English: Literary creativity, Open University, Milton Keynes Jakobson (1960) in Goodman, S & O’Halloran, K. (2006) The art of English: Literary creativity, Open University, Milton Keynes, pp. 6-24, 49-74 Larkin, P (1964), The Whitsun Weddings, Faber & Faber Ltd, London, UK, p. 26 Maybin, J. & Pearce, M. (2006) in Goodm an, S & O’Halloran, K. (2006) The art of English: Literary creativity, Open University, Milton Keynes, p.6 Papen, U. & Tusting, K. (2006), in Maybin, J & Swann, J. (2006) The art of English: everyday creativity, Open University, Milton Keynes, pp. 312-331 Short, M. (1996) Exploring the Language of Poems, Plays and Prose, Addison Wesley Longman Ltd., Essex, UK Sternberg, R.J. (1999) in Carter, R. (2004) Language and Creativity: The Art of Common Talk, London, Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group, p.47 Thornborrow, J. (2006) in Goodman, S & O’Halloran, K. (2006) The art of English: Literary creativity, Open University, Milton Keynes, pp.50-74 Widdowson, H. (2006) in Goodman, S & O’Halloran, K. (2006) The art of English: Literary creativity, Open University, Milton Keynes, pp. 30-37

Conflict and Negotiations Essays

Conflict and Negotiations Essays Conflict and Negotiations Essay Conflict and Negotiations Essay I. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Conflict is a process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to be negatively affect, something that the first party cares about. It also encompasses a wide range of conflicts that people experience in organizations. Conflicts are usually caused by poor communication, lack of openness and failure to respond to employee needs. Human Relations View Conflict as the belief that conflict is a natural and inevitable outcome in any group. While Interactionist View Conflict as the belief that conflict is not only a positive force in a group but that it is absolutely necessary for a group to perform effectively. There are at least three Types of Conflicts: Task Conflicts or Conflicts over content and goals of the work; Relationship Conflicts or conflicts based on interpersonal relationships and; Process Conflicts or conflict over how work gets done. There are five stages of conflict and they are as follows – Stage 1: Potential opposition or incompatibility, Stage 2: Cognition and Personalization; Stage 3: Intentions; Stage 4: Behavior and finally; Stage 5: Outcomes. Negotiation in definition is a process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services and attempt to agree on the exchange rate for them. There are two BARGAINING STRATEGIES that you can employ during negotiations: (1) Distributive Bargaining or the negotiation that seeks to divide up a fixed amount of resources; a win-lose situation and; (2) Integrative Bargaining or the negotiation that seeks one or more settlements that can create a win-win solution. There are also steps to be followed in ensuring a successful egotiation process – Step 1: Preparation and planning; Step 2: Definition of ground rules; Step 3: Classification and justification; Step 4: Bargaining and Problem Solving and; Step 5: Closure and implementation Finally there are five CONFLICT-HANDLING INTENTIONS: Competition, Collaboration, Avoidance, Accommodation, Compromise II. OBJECTIVES ? At the end of this report, the group ensures that the audience will be able to: 1. Define conflict. 2. Differentiate between the traditional, human relations, and interactionist views of conflict. 3. Contrast task, relationship, and process conflict. 4. Outline the conflict process. 5. Describe the five conflict-handling intentions. 6. Contrast distributive and integrative bargaining. 7. Identify the five steps in the negotiating process. 8. Describe cultural differences in negotiations. III. CONFLICT IN DEFINITION – A process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about. Is that point in an ongoing activity when an interaction â€Å"crosses over† to become an interparty conflict. – Encompasses a wide range of conflicts that people experience in organizations Incompatibility of goals Differences over interpretations of facts Disagreements based on behavioral expectations Transitions in Conflict Thought – The belief that all conflict is harmful and must be avoided. Causes: – Poor communication – Lack of openness – Failure to respond to employee needs Human Relations View of Conflict – The belief that conflict is a natural and inevitable outcome in any group. Interactionist View of Conflict – The belief that conflict is not only a positive force in a group but that it is absolutely necessary for a group to perform effectively. Functional versus Dysfunctional Conflict Functional Conflict – Conflict that supports the goals of the group and improves its performance. Dysfunctional Conflict – Conflict that hinders group performance Types of Conflict 1. Task Conflict – Conflicts over content and goals of the work. 2. Relationship Conflict – Conflict based on interpersonal relationships. 3. Process Conflict – Conflict over how work gets done. IV. THE CONFLICT PROCESS [pic] Stage I: Potential Opposition or Incompatibility – Communication – Semantic difficulties, misunderstandings, and â€Å"noise† – Structure – Size and specialization of jobs Jurisdictional clarity/ambiguity – Member/goal incompatibility – Leadership styles (close or participative) – Reward systems (win-lose) – Dependence/interdependence of groups – Personal Variables – Differing individual value systems – Personality types Stage II: Cognition and Personalization Perceived Conflict – Awareness by one or more parties of the existence of conditions that create opportunities for conflict to arise. Felt Conflict – Emotional involvement in a conflict creating anxiety, tenseness, frustration, or hostility. [pic] Stage III: Intentions Intentions – Decisions to act in a given way. Cooperativeness: – Attempting to satisfy the other party’s concerns. Assertiveness: – Attempting to satisfy one’s own concerns. Dimensions of Conflict-Handling Intentions [pic] Competing – A desire to satisfy one’s interests, regardless of the impact on the other party to the conflict. Collaborating – A situation in which the parties to a conflict each desire to satisfy fully the concerns of all parties. Avoiding – The desire to withdraw from or suppress a conflict. Accommodating – The willingness of one party in a conflict to place the opponent’s interests above his or her own. Compromising A situation in which each party to a conflict is willing to give up something. Stage IV: Behavior Conflict Management – The use of resolution and stimulation techniques to achieve the desired level of conflict. Conflict-Intensity Continuum [pic] Conflict Management Techniques 1. Problem solving 2. Superordinate goals 3. Expansion of resources 4. Avoidance 5. Smoothing 6. Compromise 7. Authoritative command 8. Altering the human variable 9. Altering the structural variables 10. Communication 11. Bringing in outsiders 12. Restructuring the organization 13. Appointing a devil’s advocate Stage V: Outcomes Functional Outcomes from Conflict – Increased group performance – Improved quality of decisions – Stimulation of creativity and innovation – Encouragement of interest and curiosity – Provision of a medium for problem-solving – Creation of an environment for self-evaluation and change Creating Functional Conflict – Reward dissent and punish conflict avoiders. Dysfunctional Outcomes from Conflict – Development of discontent – Reduced group effectiveness – Retarded communication – Reduced group cohesiveness – Infighting among group members overcomes group goals V. NEGOTIATION IN DEFINITION – A process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services and attempt to agree on the exchange rate for them. BATNA – The Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement; the lowest acceptable value (outcome) to an individual for a negotiated agreement. VI. BARGAINING STRATEGIES Distributive Bargaining – Negotiation that seeks to divide up a fixed amount of resources; a win-lose situation. Integrative Bargaining – Negotiation that seeks one or more settlements that can create a win-win solution. Distributive Versus Integrative Bargaining [pic] Staking Out the Bargaining Zone [pic] VII. THE NEGOTIATION PROCESS [pic] VIII. ISSUES IN NEGOTIATION The Role of Personality Traits in Negotiation – Traits do not appear to have a significantly direct effect on the outcomes of either bargaining or negotiating processes. Gender Differences in Negotiations – Women negotiate no differently from men, although men apparently negotiate slightly better outcomes. – Men and women with similar power bases use the same negotiating styles. – Women’s attitudes toward negotiation and their success as negotiators are less favorable than men’s. IX. THIRD-PARTY NEGOTIATIONS Mediator – A neutral third party who facilitates a negotiated solution by using reasoning, persuasion, and suggestions for alternatives. Arbitrator – A third party to a negotiation who has the authority to dictate an agreement. Conciliator – A trusted third party who provides an informal communication link between the negotiator and the opponent. Consultant – An impartial third party, skilled in conflict management, who attempts to facilitate creative problem solving through communication and analysis. X. GLOBAL IMPLICATIONS Conflict and Culture – Japanese and U. S. managers view conflict differently – U. S. managers more likely to use competing tactics while Japanese managers are likely to use compromise and avoidance Cultural Differences in Negotiations – Multiple cross-cultural studies on negotiation styles, for instance: – American negotiators are more likely than Japanese bargainers to make a first offer – North Americans use facts to persuade, Arabs use emotion, and Russians used asserted ideals – Brazilians say â€Å"no† more often than Americans or Japanese XI. CONFLICT AND UNIT PERFORMANCE [pic] XII. CONFLICT-HANDLING INTENTION Conflict-Handling Intention: Competition – When quick, decisive action is vital (in emergencies); on important issues. – Where unpopular actions need implementing (in cost cutting, enforcing unpopular rules, discipline). – On issues vital to the organization’s welfare. – When you know you’re right. – Against people who take advantage of noncompetitive behavior. Conflict-Handling Intention: Collaboration – To find an integrative solution when both sets of concerns are too important to be compromised. – When your objective is to learn. – To merge insights from people with different perspectives. To gain commitment by incorporating concerns into a consensus. – To work through feelings that have interfered with a relationship. Conflict-Handling Intention: Avoidance – When an issue is trivial, or more important issues are pressing. – When you perceive no chance of satisfying your concerns. – When potential disruption outweighs the benefits of resolution. – To let people cool down and regain perspective. – When gathering information supersedes immediate decision. – When others can resolve the conflict effectively – When issues seem tangential or symptomatic of other issues. Conflict-Handling Intention: Accommodation – When you find you’re wrong and to allow a better position to be heard. – To learn, and to show your reasonableness. – When issues are more important to others than to yourself and to satisfy others and maintain cooperation. – To build social credits for later issues. – To minimize loss when outmatched and losing. – When harmony and stability are especially important. – To allow employees to develop by learning from mistakes. Conflict-Handling Intention: Compromise – When goals are important but not worth the effort of potential disruption of more assertive approaches. When opponents with equal power are committed to mutually exclusive goals. – To achieve temporary settlements to complex issues. – To arrive at expedient solutions under time pressure. – As a backup when collaboration or competition is unsuccessful. XIII. REFERENCES – Robbins, Stephen P . Organizational Behavior, 11th ed. Prentice Hall Inc, 2006 – Robbins and Judge Organizational Behavior, 13th ed. Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall, 2009 – Thomas, â€Å"Conflict and Negotiation Processes in Organizations,† – M. D. Dunnette and L. M. Hough (eds. , Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 2nd ed. , vol. 3 (Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1992), p. 668. – S. P. Robbins, Managing Organizational Conflict: A Nontraditional Approach (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1974), pp. 93–97; and – F. Glasi, â€Å"The Process of Conflict Escalation and the Roles of Third Parties,† – G. B. J. Bomers and R. Peterson (eds. ), Conflict Management and Industrial Relations (Boston: Kluwer-Nijhoff, 1982), pp. 119–40. Attachment 1: Negotiation Bargaining, Filipino Style Negotiating Filipino Style xcerpt from the book â€Å"Negotiating International Business The Nego tiator’s Reference Guide to 50 Countries Around the World† by Lothar Kat (updated April 2010) ? Leveraging relationships is an important element ? usually a joint problem-solving process. ? While the buyer is in a superior position, both sides in a business deal own the responsibility to reach agreement ? primary negotiation style is cooperative ? Maintaining harmonious relationships throughout the process is vitally important ? disapprove of competitiveness and strive to find win-win solutions Information is rarely shared freely, since the locals believe that privileged information creates bargaining advantages ? humility is a virtue in the Philippines’ business culture ? Excessive promotions may be taken as lies and could seriously damage your counterpart’s trust in you ? Expect negotiations to be slow and protracted (Relationship building, information gathering, bargaining, and decision making all take considerable time) ? Filipinos have a lower sense o f urgency than a Westerner may be accustomed to ? Filipinos generally employ a polychronic work style (vs. onochronic cultures, such as Germany, the United Kingdom, or the United State) Bargaining Filipino Style ? Most Filipinos love bargaining and haggling ? They expect to do a lot of it during a negotiation and may be offended if you refuse to play along ? The bargaining stage of a negotiation can be extensive ? Filipinos may prefer to respond to your inputs rather than presenting ideas ? While they will eventually open up to new ideas, they do not easily change their opinions of their own ? prices often move more than 40 percent between initial offers and final agreement Filipinos generally prefer a straightforward negotiation style ? they also use deceptive techniques (telling lies and sending fake non-verbal messages, initially pretending to be disinterested in the whole deal or in single concessions, misrepresenting an item’s value, or making false demands and concessio ns) ? do not use ‘good cop, bad cop’ ? not likely to use the ‘limited authority’ technique (groups, rather than individuals, normally make decisions) ? Do not use tactics such as applying time pressure or making expiring offers, could be viewed as signs that you are not willing to build a long-term Periods of silence are frequent and usually reflect a natural inclination rather than the intentional use of a negotiation technique ? Avoid pressure tactics such as opening with your best offer ? negotiators may sometimes use emotional techniques (such as attitudinal bargaining, attempting to make you feel guilty, grimacing, or appealing to personal relationships) ? defensive tactics such as blocking, distracting or changing the subject, asking probing questions, or making promises may be used ? fine line between giving gifts and bribing (What you may consider a bribe, a Filipino may view as only a nice gift) Conflicts and disputes that may arise during a negoti ation can be difficult to resolve because Filipinos prefer to ignore or deny them ? When making decisions, Filipinos usually consider the specific situation rather than applying universal principles. ? Personal feelings and experiences weigh much more strongly than empirical evidence and other objective facts do. ? Most Filipinos are moderate risk takers Conflict and negotiations Events and Systems March 20, 2011

The Impact of Globalization on Economic Injustices towards Women Essay

The Impact of Globalization on Economic Injustices towards Women - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that Lisa Lowe believes that the Utopia and dystopian narrative of gender and sexuality address how women of color provide an ideology of liberal formation which advocates for equal rights between male and female sex. She thinks that utopia has played an important role in campaigning for women's rights in the present and during the cold war. She argues that utopia, though contradicting to dystopia, was responsible for the mass movement of women's rights which saw to the intervention of the liberal state in the United States and protected the rights of minority and women who came from different races. She echoes that despite the difficulty that was experienced by women at the time, they emerged and took over roles which were male dominated and thus defined the element of freedom, capitalism, and globality. Moreover, she argues that Utopia was responsible for the scientific revolution that unleashed innovative power for both men and women ali ke. New communication approaches came up as a result and aggregation of opinions made it possible for women to be heard in the society. Her contributions in the field are immense as she contributed towards significant and transformative of Asian American studies, therefore, enabling the current and future generation to understand the past histories and critique the past issues that affected women and are still being practiced currently. Glenn was valuable in opposing theories and ideologies that encouraged the discrimination of women and greatly contributed towards the intersection analysis of power and sexuality to free women from men bondage. Her ideologies were against liberal feminism and global feminism, but she advocated for a society where women’s could be men’s equal. She was among the scholars who took the three move off in scripting women in the book of rhetoric. She also highlighted the different issues which were affecting women and criticized the issues, t herefore, creating awareness in the field of gender studies. She drew feminist scholars from other disciplines and composed in several of her works of how women were men’s equal thus changing the contemporary society’s view of women. She highlights the different discriminative acts that were being perpetrated against women like the battle against birth control, the contraception coverage debate and the intensifying attacks on choices made by women. Her struggles contributed towards the change of women's status in the society over the years as the issues were taken into consideration and the status of women changed. Saskia Sassen argued that globalization played a major role in contributing to the sovereignty of countries. She states that women are affected by the sovereignty which is being unbounded by different economic practices within a country. She notes that women are still secluded from major economic practices and this affects how they are being treated and look ed upon by men who are their equals in the society. She develops a feminist analytics of globalization and states that for development to be achieved in all sectors, the economic conditions of men and women should be considered alike and business should be shunned away from the process. Moreover, she campaigned using the feminist analytics that taking women’s perspective into consideration allows for strategic instantiations of tendering that promotes development in all major economic areas within the society. According to Mendoza, there are many dimensions of transnational and women of color feminist theoretical perspective contributing to the new the new gender analyses of a globalizing economy and economic injustices as mentioned by women scholars. Feminist geography is among the factors affecting gender and feminist perspectives of women.

King Haigler Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

King Haigler - Research Paper Example He is in fact honored and celebrated as one of the greatest among Catawba leaders for his role in this community. His role as a leader shaped up American history and remains relevant to understanding the human experience in the wake of the 21st century. King Haigler firstly shaped the history of Catawba when he facilitated and helped to negotiate a peace treaty with six nations. The Six Nations would comprise of the Iroquois in New York and Canada (Hawkins). The region had been hit by a war that had escalated after the defeat of the Tuscarora and their departure to New York. King Haigler was keen to delegate some elders who would accompany him to a conference in Albany New York on 30 June 1751 (Blumer 33-35). This initiative was well timed and relevant at a time when people were losing their lives and property. He did not sit back but led from the front. He mobilized some members of the community who bought his idea. King Haigler effort was rewarded though came at a price as he and his crews were humiliated as the Mohawk forced them to dance with their feathers pointing down during the conference. The entire effort saw both Haigler and King Hendrick of the Mohawk share apiece pipe and the Six Nations handed Haigler a wampum belt that marked the beginning of peace (Blumer 34). This event reveals King Haigler’s commitment to step up for his community when he was needed most. He would dare to go to such battled grounds to stop wars and save lives. This underscores his relevance in the history and future of America. King Haigler was not a fun of what Blumer would term as evils of alcohol (Blumer 35). With the wake of civilization, the West had engaged in new customs that would feature use of hard drinks that Haigler believed had no value to the community. His efforts are still relevant today as alcoholism has had many go down the drain through addiction rendering them